European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity 16, 7 (2023) | DOI: 10.5507/euj.2022.015

Differences in Special Olympics athletes and non-athletes with intellectual disability: physical activity, strength and aerobic fitness

Johanna Oskarsson1, Sanna Fjellström1, Elisabeth Hansen1,2, Marie Ohlsson1
1 Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sport Research Center, Mid Sweden University, Sweden
2 The Faculty of Education and Arts, Nord University, Bodø, Norway

Adults with intellectual disability (ID) have higher degree of sedentary lifestyle and participate in physical activity less compared to the general population. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to analyse if participation in Special Olympics increase the level of physical activity (PA) and influence physical health aspects such as BMI, muscular strength and aerobic fitness for people with ID. Data were analysed from the Special Olympics Sweden Invitational Games 2020, on athletes (n=38) and non-athletes with ID (n=20), of strength (partial sit-up-, seated push-up-, handgrip- and timed sit to stand test), aerobic fitness (2 min step up test), BMI and a PA-questionnaire. Athletes showed higher levels of PA moderate intensity, both groups had high BMI, low levels of aerobic fitness and strength. This study indicate that Special Olympics athletes and non-athletes with ID need to increase their physical activity of both strength training and PA higher intensity to improve physical health aspects.

Keywords: Disability sports; Healthy Athletes; Health Promotion; FUNfitness; Physical Health

Received: January 26, 2022; Revised: November 4, 2022; Accepted: November 28, 2022; Published online: June 27, 2023  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Oskarsson, J., Fjellström, S., Hansen, E., & Ohlsson, M. (2023). Differences in Special Olympics athletes and non-athletes with intellectual disability: physical activity, strength and aerobic fitness. European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity, 16, Article 7. https://doi.org/10.5507/euj.2022.015
Share...
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Bennett, H., Parfitt, G., Davison, K., & Eston, R. (2016). Validity of submaximal step tests to estimate maximal oxygen uptake in healthy adults. Sports Medicine, 46(5), 737-750. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0445-1 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    2. Boer, P. H. (2018). Effects of detraining on anthropometry, aerobic capacity and functional ability in adults with Down syndrome. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 31, 144-150. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12327 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    3. Bohannon, R. W., Magasi, S. R., Bubela D. J., Wang, Y.C, & Gershon, R.C. (2012). Grip and knee extension muscle strength reflect a common construct among adults. Muscle & Nerve, 46(4), 555-558. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.23350 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    4. Burnstein, B. D., Steele R. J., & Shrier. I. (2011). Reliability of fitness tests using methods and time periods common in sport and occupational management. Journal of Athletic Training, 46(5), 505-513. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-46.5.505 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    5. Carty, C., van der Ploeg, H. P., Biddle, S. J., Bull, F., Willumsen, J., Lee, L., & Milton, K. (2021). The first global physical activity and sedentary behaviour guidelines for people living with disability. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 18(1), 86-93. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2020-0629 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    6. Cartwright, L., Reid, M., Hammersley, R., & Valley R. M. (2016). Barriers to increasing the physical activity of people with intellectual disabilities. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(1), 47-55. https://doi.org/10.1111/bld.12175 Go to original source...
    7. Chiba, Y., Shimada, A., Yoshida, F., Keino, H., Hasegawa, M., Ikari, H., Miyake, S., & Hosokawa, M. (2009). Risk of fall for individuals with intellectual disability. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 114(4), 225-236. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-114.4:225-236 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    8. Cuesta-Vargas, A., & Hilgenkamp, T. (2015). Reference values of grip strength measured with a Jamar dynamometer in 1526 adults with intellectual disabilities and compared to adults without intellectual disability. PloS One, 10(6), e0129585. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0129585 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    9. Darcy, S., & Dowse, L. (2013). In search of a level playing field-the constraints and benefits of sport participation for people with intellectual disability. Disability & Society, 28(3), 393-407. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2012.714258 Go to original source...
    10. Diener, M. H., Golding, L. A., & Diener, D. (1995). Validity and reliability of a one-minute half sit-up test of abdominal strength and endurance. Research in Sports Medicine: An International Journal, 6(2), 105-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/15438629509512042 Go to original source...
    11. Doherty, A. J., Jones, S. P., Chauhan, U., & Gibson, J. M. (2018). An integrative review of multicomponent weight management interventions for adults with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 31, 39-51. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12367 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    12. Elmahgoub, S. S., Calders, P., Lambers, S., Stegen, S. M., Van Laethem, C., & Cambier, D. C. (2011). The effect of combined exercise training in adolescents who are overweight or obese with intellectual disability: the role of training frequency. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 25(8), 2274-2282. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181f11c41 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    13. Elmahgoub, S. M., Lambers, S., Stegen, S., Van Laethem, C., Cambier, D., & Calders, P. (2009). The influence of combined exercise training on indices of obesity, physical fitness and lipid profile in overweight and obese adolescents with mental retardation. European Journal of Pediatrics, 168(11), 1327-1333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-009-0930-3 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    14. Folch-Mas, A., Cortés-Ruiz, M. J., Vicens Calderón, P., & Martínez-Leal, R. (2017). Health profiles in people with intellectual developmental disorders. Salud Pública de México, 59, 400-407. https://doi.org/10.21149/8199 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    15. Foley, J. T., Lloyd, M., & Temple, V. A. (2013). Body mass index trends among adult US Special Olympians, 2005-2010. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 30(4), 373-386. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.30.4.373 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    16. Gómez-Ambrosi, J., Silva, C., Galofré, J. C., Escalada, J., Santos, S., Millán, D., Vila, N., Ibañez, P., Gil, M. J., Valenti, V., Rotellar, F., Ramírez, B., Salvador, J., & Frühbeck, G. (2012). Body mass index classification misses subjects with increased cardiometabolic risk factors related to elevated adiposity. International Journal of Obesity, 36, 286-294. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2011.100 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    17. González-Agüero, A., Vicente-Rodríguez, G., Moreno, L. A., Guerra-Balic, M., Ara, I., & Casajus, J. A. (2010). Health-related physical fitness in children and adolescents with Down syndrome and response to training. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(5), 716-724. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.1111 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    18. Graham, A., & Reid, G. (2000). Physical fitness of adults with an intellectual disability: A 13-year follow-up study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71(2), 152-161. https://doi.org/10.1080/0271367.2000.10608893 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    19. Guerra-Balic, M., Cuadrado-Mateos, E., Geronimo-Blasco, C., & Fernhall, B. O. (2000). Physical fitness levels of physically active and sedentary adults with Down syndrome. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 17(3), 310-321. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.17.3.310 Go to original source...
    20. Harada, C. M., Siperstein, G. N., Parker, R. C., & Lenox, D. (2011). Promoting social inclusion for people with intellectual disabilities through sport: Special Olympics International, global sport initiatives and strategies. Sport in Society, 14(9), 1131-1148. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2011.614770 Go to original source...
    21. Hassan, D., Dowling, S., McConkey, R., & Menke, S. (2012). The inclusion of people with intellectual disabilities in team sports: Lessons from the Youth Unified Sports programme of Special Olympics. Sport in Society, 15(9), 1275-1290. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2012.695348 Go to original source...
    22. Hilgenkamp, T. I., Reis, D., van Wijck, R., & Evenhuis, H. M. (2012). Physical activity levels in older adults with intellectual disabilities are extremely low. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 33(2), 477-483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2011.10.011 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    23. Holder, M. (2015). The Special Olympics healthy athletes experience. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 14(3), 165-170. http://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000158 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    24. Howie, E. K., Barnes, T. L., McDermott, S., Mann, J. R., Clarkson, J., & Meriwether, R. A. (2012). Availability of physical activity resources in the environment for adults with intellectual disabilities. Disability and Health Journal, 5(1), 41-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2011.09.004 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    25. Hsieh, K., Heller, T., & Miller, A. B. (2001). Risk factors for injuries and falls among adults with developmental disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 45(1), 76-82. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2001.00277.x Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    26. Kim, K. H., Lee, B. A., & Oh, D. J. (2018). Effects of aquatic exercise on health-related physical fitness, blood fat, and immune functions of children with disabilities. Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation, 14(2), 289. https://doi.org/10.12965/jer.1836068.034 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    27. Krahn, G. L., Hammond, L., & Turner, A. (2006). A cascade of disparities: health and health care access for people with intellectual disabilities. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 12(1), 70-82. https://doi.org/10.1002/mrdd.20098 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    28. Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: a practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    29. Lloyd, M., Foley, J. T., & Temple, V. A. (2018). Maximizing the use of Special Olympics International's Healthy Athletes database: A call to action. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 73, 58-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.12.009 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    30. Lord, S. R., Murray, S. M., Chapman, K., Munro, B., & Tiedemann, A. (2002). Sit-to-stand performance depends on sensation, speed, balance, and psychological status in addition to strength in older people. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 57(8), M539-M543. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/57.8.M539 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    31. Must, A., Spadano, J., Coakley, E. H., Field, A. E., Colditz, G., & Dietz, W. H. (1999). The disease burden associated with overweight and obesity. JAMA, 282(16), 1523-1529. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.282.16.1523 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    32. Newcomer, K. L., Krug, H. E., & Mahowald, M. L. (1993). Validity and reliability of the timed-stands test for patients with rheumatoid arthritis and other chronic diseases. The Journal of Rheumatology, 20(1), 21-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.03.028 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    33. Oviedo, G. R., Travier, N., & Guerra-Balic, M. (2017). Sedentary and physical activity patterns in adults with intellectual disability. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(9), 1027. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14091027 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    34. Pack, S., Kelly, S., & Arvinen-Barrow, M. (2017). "I think I became a swimmer rather than just someone with a disability swimming up and down:" paralympic athletes perceptions of self and identity development. Disability and Rehabilitation, 39(20), 2063-2070. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2016.1217074 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    35. Parasport (2021. January 10). Intellektuell funktionsnedsättning. https://www.parasport.se/tranaochtavla/safunkarparasport/intellektuellfunktionsnedsattning/
    36. Rintala, P., Asunta, P., Lahti, J., & Loovis, E. M. (2016). Physical fitness of individuals with intellectual disability who have Special Olympics experience. European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity, 9. https://doi.org/10.5507/euj.2016.006 Go to original source...
    37. Robertson, J., & Emerson, E. (2010). Participation in sports by people with intellectual disabilities in England: A brief report. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 23(6), 616-622. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2009.00540.x Go to original source...
    38. Special Olympics. 2020a. "Inclusive Health, Healthy Athletes". Accessed 20 September. https://www.specialolympics.org/our-work/inclusive-health/healthy-athletes?locale=en
    39. Special Olympics. 2020b. "Special Olympics Health Promotion. Clinical Director Manual. September 2020." Accessed 30 May. https://media.specialolympics.org/resources/health/disciplines/health-promotion/manual/Health-Promotion-Clinical-Director-Manual-Sept-2020-2.pdf?_ga=2.67450386.227045215.1622298331-1291524852.1615292683
    40. Special Olympics. 2020c. Special Olympics FUNfitness: Learn how to organize, promote and present. Accessed 10 August. https://media.specialolympics.org/resources/health/disciplines/funfitness/FUNfitness-Training-Manual-September-2020.pdf?_ga=2.228501854.2140653826.1605464307-1715434474.1586332510
    41. Svanelöv, E., Wallén, E. F., Enarsson, P., & Stier, J. (2020). 'Everybody with disability should be included': A qualitative interview study of athletes' experiences of disability sports participation analysed with ideas of able-mindedness. Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research, 22(1). http://doi.org/10.16993/sjdr.676 Go to original source...
    42. Temple, V. A., Rintala, P., Zeitz, S., Lloyd, M., & Foley, J. T. (2022). Age and sex-based differences in functional strength of adults participating in Special Olympics. European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity, 15(1), 1-1. https://doi.org/10.5507/euj.2021.009 Go to original source...
    43. Temple, V. A., & Walkley, J. W. (2007). Perspectives of constraining and enabling factors for health-promoting physical activity by adults with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 32(1), 28-38. http://doi.org/10.1080/13668250701194034 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    44. Terblanche, E., & Boer, P. H. (2013). The functional fitness capacity of adults with Down syndrome in South Africa. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 57(9), 826-836. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01594.x Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    45. Tomczak, M., & Tomczak, E. (2014). The need to report effect size estimates revisited. An overview of some recommended measures of effect size. Trends in Sport Sciences, 1(21), 19-25.
    46. Van Biesen, D., Hettinga, F. J., McCulloch, K., & Vanlandewijck, Y. C. (2017). Pacing ability in elite runners with intellectual impairment. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 49(3), 588-594. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000001115 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    47. Van Biesen, D., & Pineda, R. C. (2019). Balance and strength assessment of Special Olympics athletes: how feasible and reliable is the Fun Fitness test battery? European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity, 12(1)1-12. http://doi.org/10.5507/euj.2019.004 Go to original source...
    48. Walsh, D., Belton, S., Meegan, S., Bowers, K., Corby, D., Staines, A., McVeigh, T., McKeon, M., Hoey, E., Trépel, D., Griffin, P., & Sweeney, M. R. (2018). A comparison of physical activity, physical fitness levels, BMI and blood pressure of adults with intellectual disability, who do and do not take part in Special Olympics Ireland programmes: Results from the SOPHIE study. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities, 22(2), 154-170. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744629516688773 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    49. World Health Organization. (2020). "Physical Activity". Accessed 18 January. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity

    This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0), which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original publication is properly cited. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.


    Return to the content