European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity 15, 1 (2022) | DOI: 10.5507/euj.2021.009

Age and sex-based differences in functional strength of adults participating in Special Olympics

Viviene A. Temple1, Pauli Rintala2,, Shayla Zeitz1, Meghann Lloyd3, John T. Foley4
1 School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education, University of Victoria, Canada
2 Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
3 Faculty of Health Sciences, Ontario Tech University, Canada
4 Physical Education Department, State University of New York College at Cortland, USA

Muscular strength is a critical component of physical health. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to examine age- and sex-based differences in functional strength and rates of referral for education in a large international sample of Special Olympics athletes. A total of 30,358 (male = 19,661) adult (20–69 years old) athlete functional strength records were utilized from the Special Olympics Healthy Athletes database. Descriptive statistics were computed for the following tests: timed sit to stand, partial sit-up, grip strength, and seated push-up. Analyses of variance with Fisher-Hayter pairwise comparisons generally supported age-related decreases in strength among both males and females in this study. Overall, male participants were stronger than the female participants. However, significantly fewer women were referred for education based on their grip strength scores. The rates of referral for education are a concern regarding core- and leg strength for more than one-third of athletes over the age of 30. These findings suggest that a substantial proportion of Special Olympics athletes would benefit from additional strength and conditioning training.

Keywords: intellectual disability, FUNfitness test battery, education, fitness testing, screening, health, athletes

Received: September 14, 2020; Revised: September 24, 2021; Accepted: October 2, 2021; Prepublished online: January 6, 2022; Published online: January 26, 2022  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Temple, V.A., Rintala, P., Zeitz, S., Lloyd, M., & Foley, J.T. (2022). Age and sex-based differences in functional strength of adults participating in Special Olympics. European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity, 15, Article 1. https://doi.org/10.5507/euj.2021.009
Share...
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Anderson, D. S., Jackson, M. F., Kropf, D. S., & Soderberg, G. L. (1984). Electromyographic analysis of selected muscles during sitting push-ups: Effects of position and sex. Physical Therapy, 64(1), 24-28. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/64.1.24 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    2. Bohannon, R. W., Peolsson, A., Massy-Westropp, N., Desrosiers, J., & Bear-Lehman, J. (2006). Reference values for adult grip strength measured with a Jamar dynamometer: A descriptive meta-analysis. Physiotherapy, 92(1), 11-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physio.2005.05.003 Go to original source...
    3. Bohannon, R. W., Shove, M. E., Barreca, S. R., Masters, L. M., & Sigouin, C. S. (2007). Five-repetition sit-to-stand test performance by community-dwelling adults: A preliminary investigation of times, determinants, and relationship with self-reported physical performance. Isokinetics and Exercise Science, 15, 77-81. https://doi.org/10.3233/IES-2007-0253 Go to original source...
    4. Carmeli, E., Imam, B., & Merrick, J. (2012). The relationship of pre-sarcopenia (low muscle mass) and sarcopenia (loss of muscle strength) with functional decline in individuals with intellectual disability (ID). Archives of Gerontology & Geriatrics, 55(1), 181-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2011.06.032 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    5. Cottrell, R. R., Girvan, J. T., Seabert, J. T., Caile, S., & McKenzie, J. F. (2018). Principles and Foundations of Health Promotion and Education (7 ed.). Pearson.
    6. Cowley, P. M., Ploutz-Snyder, L. L., Baynard, T., Heffernan, K., Jae, S. Y., Hsu, S., Lee, M., Pitetti, K. H., Reiman, M. P., & Fernhall, B. (2010). Physical fitness predicts functional tasks in individuals with Down syndrome. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 42, 388-393. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181b07e7a Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    7. Cox, C. R., Clemson, L., Stancliffe, R. J., Durvasula, S., & Sherrington, C. (2010). Incidence of and risk factors for falls among adults with an intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 54(12), 1045-1057. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01333.x Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    8. Csuka, M., & McCarty, D. J. (1985). Simple method for measurement of lower extremity muscle strength. The American Journal of Medicine, 78, 77-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(85)90465-6 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    9. Cuesta-Vargas, A. I., & Hilgenkamp, T. (2015). Reference values of grip strength measured with a Jamar dynamometer in 1526 adults with intellectual disabilities and compared to adults without intellectual disability. PLoS ONE, 10(6), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0129585 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    10. Cuesta-Vargas, A. I., Paz-Lourido, B., & Rodriguez, A. (2011, Mar-Apr). Physical fitness profile in adults with intellectual disabilities: Differences between levels of sport practice. Research in Developmental Disabilities 32(2), 788-794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2010.10.023 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    11. Foley, J. T., Lloyd, M., & Temple, V. A. (2013). Body mass index trends among adult U.S. Special Olympians, 2005-2010. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 30(4), 373-386. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.30.4.373 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    12. Franciosi, E., Baldari, C., Gallotta, M. C., Emerenziani, G. P., & Guidetti, L. (2010). Selected factors correlated to athletic performance in adults with mental retardation. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(4), 1059-1064. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181ca503c Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    13. Franciosi, E., Guidetti, L., Gallotta, M. C., Emerenziani, G. P., & Baldari, C. (2010). Contributions of selected fundamental factors to basketball performance in adult players with mental retardation. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(8), 2166-2171. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181e34754 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    14. Granacher, U., Gollhofer, A., Hortobágyi, T., Kressig, R. W., & Muehlbauer, T. (2013). The importance of trunk muscle strength for balance, functional performance, and fall prevention in seniors: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 43(7), 627-641. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-013-0041-1 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    15. Hilgenkamp, T. I., van Wijck, R., & Evenhuis, H. M. (2012). Feasibility and reliability of physical fitness tests in older adults with intellectual disability: A pilot study. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 37(2), 158-162. https://doi.org/10.3109/13668250.2012.681773 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    16. Innes, E. (1999). Handgrip strength testing: A review of the literature. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 46(3), 120-140. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1630.1999.00182.x Go to original source...
    17. Ishigaki, E. Y., Ramos, L. G., Carvalho, E. S., & Lunardi, A. C. (2014). Effectiveness of muscle strengthening and description of protocols for preventing falls in the elderly: A systematic review. Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy, 18, 111-118. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-35552012005000148 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    18. Kibler, W. B., Press, J., & Sciascia, A. (2006). The role of core stability in athletic function. Sports Medicine, 36(3), 189-198. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636030-00001 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    19. Kirk, R. E. (2013). Multiple comparison tests (4 ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483384733 Go to original source...
    20. Kosiak, M., & Kottke, F. J. (1990). Prevention and rehabilitation of ischemic ulcers. In F. J. K. F. H. Krusen, & J. F. Lehmann (Ed.), Krusen's Handbook of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (4 ed., pp. 976-987). WB Saunders.
    21. Kuh, D., Bassey, E. J., Butterworth, S., Hardy, R., Wadsworth, M. E. J., & Team, a. t. M. S. (2005). Grip strength, postural control, and functional leg power in a representative cohort of British men and women: Associations with physical activity, health status, and socioeconomic conditions. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 60(2), 224-231. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/60.2.224 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    22. Lahtinen, U., Rintala, P., & Malin, A. (2007). Physical performance of individuals with intellectual disability: A 30-year follow-up. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 24(2), 125-143. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.24.2.125 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    23. Newcomer, K. L., Krug, H. E., & Mahowald, M. L. (1993). Validity and reliability of the timed-stands test for patients with rheumatoid arthritis and other chronic diseases. The Journal of Rheumatology, 20(1), 21-27. Go to PubMed...
    24. Nordgren, B., & Bäckström, L. (1971). Correlations between muscular strength and industrial work performance in mentally retarded persons. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica. Supplement, 217, 122-126. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    25. Oppewal, A., & Hilgenkamp, T. I. M. (2020). Adding meaning to physical fitness test results in individuals with intellectual disabilities. Disability & Rehabilitation, 42(10), 1406-1413. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2018.1527399 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    26. Oppewal, A., Hilgenkamp, T. I. M., van Wijck, R., Schoufour, J. D., & Evenhuis, H. M. (2014a). Physical fitness is predictive for a decline in daily functioning in older adults with intellectual disabilities: Results of the HA-ID study. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(10), 2299-2315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.05.027 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    27. Oppewal, A., Hilgenkamp, T. I. M., van Wijck, R., Schoufour, J. D., & Evenhuis, H. M. (2014b). The predictive value of physical fitness for falls in older adults with intellectual disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(6), 1317-1325. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.03.022 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    28. Oppewal, A., Hilgenkamp, T. I. M., van Wijck, R., Schoufour, J. D., & Evenhuis, H. M. (2015). Physical fitness is predictive for a decline in the ability to perform instrumental activities of daily living in older adults with intellectual disabilities: Results of the HA-ID study. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 41-42, 76-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.05.002 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    29. Parfrey, K. C., Docherty, D., Workman, R. C., & Behm, D. G. (2008, Oct). The effects of different sit- and curl-up positions on activation of abdominal and hip flexor musculature. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 33(5), 888-895. https://doi.org/10.1139/h08-061 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    30. Popkin, B. M. (2002). Part II. What is unique about the experience in lower-and middle-income less-industrialised countries compared with the very-highincome industrialised countries?: The shift in stages of the nutrition transition in the developing world differes from past experiences! . Public Health Nutrition, 5(1a), 205-214. https://doi.org/10.1079/PHN2001295 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    31. Rintala, P., Asunta, P., Lahti, J., & Loovis, M. (2016). Physical fitness of individuals with an intellectual disability who have special Olympics experience. European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity, 9(2), 13-19. https://doi.org/10.5507/euj.2016.006 Go to original source...
    32. Roldán-Jiménez, C., Bennett, P., & Cuesta-Vargas, A. I. (2015). Muscular activity and fatigue in lower-limb and trunk muscles during different sit-to-stand tests. PLoS ONE, 10(10), e0141675. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141675 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    33. Salb, J., Finlayson, J., Almutaseb, S., Scharfenberg, B., Becker, C., Sieber, C., & Freiberger, E. (2015). Test-retest reliability and agreement of physical fall risk assessment tools in adults with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 59(12), 1121-1129. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12216 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    34. Santarossa, S., Temple, A. V., Rintala, P., Lloyd, M., DeMarco, B., & Foley, T. J. (2017). Muscular strength of adult Special Olympians by country economic status. European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity, 10(1), 10-16. https://doi.org/10.5507/euj.2017.002 Go to original source...
    35. Short, F. X., & Winnick, J. P. (2005). Test Items and Standards Related to Muscle Strength and Endurance on the Brockport Physical Fitness Test. Kinesiology, Sport Studies and Physical Education Faculty Publications, Paper 3, 1-32. http://digitalcommons.brockport.edu/pes_facpub/3 Go to original source...
    36. Special Olympics. (2016). Special Olympics global strategic plan 2016 - 2020. http://media.specialolympics.org/resources/strategic-plan/Special-Olympics-Global-Strategic-Plan---2016-2020.pdf
    37. Special Olympics. (2020a). Our Work: Healthy Athletes. https://www.specialolympics.org/our-work/inclusive-health/healthy-athletes
    38. Special Olympics. (2020b). Special Olympics FUNfitness. FUNfitness: Learn how to organize, promote and present. http://media.specialolympics.org/resources/health/disciplines/funfitness/FUNfitness-Training-Manual.pdf
    39. Stata Corp. (2017). Stata Statistical Software: Release 15. In StataCorp LLC.
    40. Taekema, D. G., Gussekloo, J., Maier, A. B., Westendorp, R. G. J., & de Craen, A. J. M. (2010). Handgrip strength as a predictor of functional, psychological and social health. A prospective population-based study among the oldest old. Age Ageing, 39(3), 331-337. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afq022 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    41. Van Biesen, D., & Pineda, C. R. (2019). Balance and strength assessment of Special Olympics athletes: How feasible and reliable is the Fun Fitness test battery? European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity, 12(1), 6-6. https://doi.org/10.5507/euj.2019.004 Go to original source...
    42. Winnick, J. P., & Short, F. X. (1998). Project Target: Criterion-referenced physical fitness standards for adolescents with disabilities final report. U. S. D. o. E. Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services.
    43. Winnick, J. P., & Short, F. X. (2014). Brockport physical fitness test manual. A health-related assessment for youngsters with disabilities (2nd ed.). Human Kinetics. Go to original source...
    44. World Health Organization. (2020). WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240015128
    45. Yun, J., Agiovlasitis, S., & Bryan, R. (2007). Reliability of muscular strength and endurance assessments for individuals with mental retardation using generalizability theory. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 78(1), A-105.

    This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0), which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original publication is properly cited. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.


    Return to the content